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[O] Geography(Pure) Smart Guides

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  1. Topic I: Coasts(Physical)

    1. How and why are coastal environments different and dynamic?
    5 Topics
  2. 2. Why are coastal areas valuable?
    4 Topics
  3. 3. How can we manage coastal areas in a sustainable manner?
    2 Topics
  4. Topic II: Living with Tectonic Hazards(Physical)
    4. Why are some areas more prone to tectonic hazards?
    2 Topics
  5. 5. What landforms and associated tectonic phenomena are found at plate boundaries?
    3 Topics
  6. 6. How do people prepare for and respond to earthquakes?
    3 Topics
  7. Topic III: Variable Weather and Changing Climate(Physical)
    7. Why do different places experience different weather and climate?
    7 Topics
  8. 8. What is happening to the Earth’s climate?
    5 Topics
  9. 9. Is the weather becoming more extreme?
    4 Topics
  10. Topic IV: Global Tourism(Human)
    10. How does the nature of tourism vary from place to place?
    2 Topics
  11. 11. Why has tourism become a global phenomenon?
    3 Topics
  12. 12. Developing tourism at what cost?
    2 Topics
  13. Topic V: Food Resources(Human)
    13. How and why have food consumption patterns changed since the 1960s?
    6 Topics
  14. 14. What are the trends and challenges in the production of food crops?
    4 Topics
  15. 15. How can the problem of food shortage be addressed?
    1 Topic
  16. Topic VI: Health and Diseases(Human)
    16. What are the global patterns of health and diseases?
    3 Topics
  17. 17. What influences the spread and impact of infectious diseases?
    3 Topics
  18. 18. How can we manage the current and future spread of infectious diseases?
    4 Topics
  19. Topic VII: Geography Skills and Investigations
    19. Map Reading
    11 Topics
  20. 20. Tourism Fieldwork
    1 Topic
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Acronym: Why The Currents and Geology Trouble Humans

1. Waves

Wave action is the main shaping force of coastal environments. Waves form when wind blows across the surface of seas and oceans. Energy from the wind is transferred to the water and it is wind energy that helps shape coasts when the waves hit land.

2. Tides and sea-level changes

Tides refer to the daily alternate rise and fall in the sea level. They are caused mainly by the effects of gravitational pull of the moon and sun on earth. Low tides are experienced between the high tides. It takes about six hours for tides to change.


Tides affect processes such as coastal erosion, sediment transport and sediment deposition. During high tides, waves reach parts of coasts that may not be subjected to wave action at Low tides. Hence, at high tides, waves erode and transport more sediments away from larger parts of the coasts than at other times.
Changes in the sea level also occur over an extended period of time.


// eg. At the end of the last ice age of about 10,000 years ago, temperatures rose and glaciers thawed, releasing massive volumes of water into the seas and oceans. The resultant rise in sea level of up to 100 metres in some parts of the earth created new coastlines. In recent times, the rise in sea level can be attributed to climate change.

3. Currents

Currents are large-scale, continuous movements of water in seas and oceans. They are driven largely by prevailing winds which generally blow in one direction. Ocean currents play a very important role in distributing sediments and regulating temperatures. Currents carry large amounts of energy and shape coasts though the processes of coastal erosion, sediment transport and sediment deposition.


Ocean currents carry cool water away from the north and south poles towards the equator and warm water away from the equator towards the poles. Closer to the shore, nearshore currents help to shape the coastline. An example is longshore currents, which flow parallel
to the coast.

4. Geology

Coastal environments are affected by their geology, which is the arrangement and composition of rock found in the area. Rocks may be arranged in layers, such as alternate layers of hard and soft rocks.
Rock composition determines the hardness of rocks and their resistance to erosion, which affects the rate of change along coasts.
More resistant rocks such as granite and basalt will erode slower than less resistant rocks such as limestone and shale. Yet granite and basalt are vulnerable to erosion when the joints of these rocks are attacked by waves. Erosion hence weakens the rocks.


Coastal processes that operate on coasts consisting of different types of rock result in coasts with different coastlines.

5. Types of ecosystems

In an ecosystem, communities of plants and animals interact with each other as well as the environment. Examples of ecosystems in coastal environments include mangroves and coral reefs. They affect the rate of change of coastal environments by reducing the impacts of waves on coasts.
Coral reefs are structures comprising colonies of billions of tiny polyps. They develop in the sea bed slightly below sea level. Coral reefs provide natural barriers that help slow down the speed and impacts of waves on the coastline.


Mangroves, with their special aerial roots, help trap sediments and reduce coastal erosion. Over time, the trapped sediments can form small islands and extend the coastline further seawards.

6. Human activities

People change coastal environments by living, trading, fishing and engaging in recreational activities in these environments. For example, people alter coastlines when they build marinas and port facilities. People also cause pollution in these environments by dumping waste.